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Hallstatt culture, named after the famous cemetery near a salt mine at Hallstatt, Austria. The usual way to obtain useful products from the unattractive, unmelted iron which is left in the furnace (a spongy mass, the ‘‘bloom’’, containing slag) is to hammer the liquid slag out of the hot lump, yielding fairly pure wrought iron. The result may not be better than bronze. Only in a forging process with a long procedure of hammering and reheating were superior steels obtained. In charcoal-fired forges the fresh, hot surface of the wrought iron comes into contact with carbon and carbon monoxide which thus ‘‘carburize’’ the iron surface to form steel as an iron–carbon alloy.
The other method started from a single high-carbon steel ingot, called ‘‘wootz’’, originally produced from special ore in India. The wootz was then forged in many heating–cooling cycles (Fig. 2b). The secret of the production of Damascene blades from a wootz steel ingot was unfortunately lost during the 18th century, but has recently been rediscovered in a co-operation between a scientist and a blacksmith (Verhoeven et al. 1998; Verhoeven 2001). It turned out that the surface patterns on the blades resulted from the formation of bands of iron carbide (Fe3 C) particles initiated by the microsegregation of carbide-forming impurity elements being present in the wootz ingots (Fig.
11, 376. , and Pfeiler, W. (2004), Z. Metallkde. 95, 880. , and Pfeiler, W. (2006), Z. Metallkde. 97, 273. , in: Nonlinear Instability, Chaos and Turbulence, Vol. 2 (Debnath, L. ), WIT Press, Southampton, 2000, p. 79. , and Podloucky, R. (2004), J. Mater. Sci. 39, 3877. , and Pfeiler, W. (2003), Intermetallics 11, 161. , Institut fu¨r Ur- und Fru¨hgeschichte, University of Vienna (2006), personal communication. Veldhuijzen, H. and Van der Steen, E. (2000), Archeology 53(1), 21. E. (1998), JOM 50, 58.